Ruth’s Sociology Resources Blog

Social class is a complex and changing concept – as we will see, different sociological viewpoints see it as being different things, having different causes and effects, some sociologists would even argue that social class no longer exists.You need to know:
• What is meant by social class and different views of social class
• How social class is measured
• How social class identities are formed
• How social class identities are changing
What is social class?
Today social class is usually defined by a person’s occupation, not their wealth, income or status, although these are often linked. Social classes are seen to be in a hierarchy, with those classes at the “top” having greater power in society. (of course you need to be wary of the implied idea that some social classes are better than others – having greater power does not necessarily mean being “better” – this is a value judgement).

In the UK, it is generally agreed that there are 3 main social classes:

• The Upper Class – these are the aristocracy and the very wealthy, consisting of less than 1% of the population, split into 3 sub-groups:
• Aristocracy – landowners and “old” families
• Entrepreneurial Rich – families that have made their money through business eg. Sainsbury family
• Self-made / Jet-set – people that have become rich through their talent & celebrity – eg. The Beckhams
• The Middle Class (or classes) – traditionally made up of professionals and non-manual workers
• The Working Class (or classes) – traditionally made up of manual and unskilled workers

Although the social class structure has changed significantly over the past 30-40 years social class is still a useful concept in sociology as it is closely linked to individuals’ life-chances and lifestyles.
Theoretical viewpoints on Social Class
Here are some basic statements about social class from different sociological viewpoints.
Functionalist

• Social inequality is necessary in society, this is expressed in the form of social class.
• Society is a meritocracy
• Those who work hard and are talented will make it to the top of society and therefore into the upper social classes
• A hierarchy of social classes identifies who is most important in society, they are rewarded with pay and prestige

Marxist

• The basis of social class is purely economic – it is based on ownership of property & wealth
• The existence of social classes allows exploitation to take place because some people are richer than others and are therefore more powerful
• The bourgeoisie (or upper class) exploit and oppress the proletariat (working class)
• There is a conflict of interests between the social classes
• Eventually revolution by the proletariat will lead to equality and the end of social class

Weberian/Social Action

• Status and power are just as important in determining social class as occupation
• Social classes are not homogenous, within each class there are numerous further divisions
• Social class is a complex concept, it is defined by a number of factors and is constantly changing

How is social class measured?

This is a brief PowerPoint introduction to how social class is measured today. It looks at how and why we measure social class.Social class is measured by occupation, some of the terms we use to refer to occupations may be unfamiliar:

• Professional – this refers to an occupation which requires specific qualifications, usually a university degree – eg. Teachers, doctors, lawyers
• Manual – this refers to jobs which manufacture or mend physical items, traditionally requiring physical strength – eg. Builders, plumbers, factory workers, car mechanics
• Non-manual – is the opposite to manual, often office or shop work, providing services – eg. Secretaries, shop assistants, air hostesses
• Skilled – requires some level of skill and experience to perform the job – eg. Plumbers, builders, secretaries
• Unskilled – opposite to skilled – eg. Builders’ labourers, shop assistant, shelf-stackers in a supermarket

For more detail on the NS-SEC – the current measurement of social class (this takes you to the National Statistics website)

How are social class identities formed?

Each class has its own identity, values and lifestyle

We are socialised into class identities:

• important role of family
• development of class consciousness – “us” & “them”, awareness of differences
• role of education – key in educating children into their class identities

Cultures
Bourdieu (1984) – each class has its own values, tastes & preferences

• Affects:
• Consumption choices - of food, music, newspapers
• Speech & language
• Attitudes towards their bodies
• Attitudes towards others
• Attitudes towards education and employment

The Upper Class

– Culture & Identity

• Mackintosh & Mooney (2000) – wealth & privilege not visible
• Houses, events are held away from wider society, behind security gates, exclusive invitations, private schools
• strong sense of identity due to social closure
• very difficult to become a member of the upper class, they have little interaction with other social classes
• Glass (1954), Halsey et al (1980) – Elite self-recruitment
• system of education and kinship
• “old boys network”, school ties
• intermarriage

Education

• public schools & Oxbridge – key source of identity & socialisation
• help form networks for business and social events
• secondary socialisation into upper class culture

Family, Marriage & Kinship

• intermarriage, connections

Social & Leisure activities

• exclusive social events – eg. Ascot, garden parties, Henley, polo
• traditions – “shootin’, huntin’, fishin’”
• use for networking

Values

• Tradition
• Authority
• Breeding & background

The Middle Classes

• much broader than Upper class
• diverse backgrounds & occupations – open – may mean lack of common identity

Culture and Lifestyles

• Roberts (2001) – huge diversity
• More active & diverse than w/class
• Savage et al (1992) – traditionally conformist but now often non-conformist
• 3 different lifestyles
• Postmodern – contradictory & diverse interests
• Ascetic – intellectual & individualistic, typically public employees, not as economically wealthy
• Managerial – conventional middle class pursuits

Values

• Professionals
• High value on education & independence – McDonough (1997)
• Roberts (2001) – 3 “preoccupations”

1. Service
2. Career
3. Meritocracy

• Routine white-collar workers
• Office work
• Mainly women
• Poorly paid
• w/class? – but little evidence of w/class values - work as means of improving life – McDonough (1997)
• Self-employed & small business owners
• Individualistic, belief in independence
• Importance of hard work & discipline

The Working Class

• covers a broad range of occupations & groups
• 2 main groups have emerged

Traditional Working Class

• “rugged masculinity” valued
• strong bonds associated with work
• importance of home & women’s role w/in it
• close-knit family networks
• close-knit community
• strong class consciousness – struggle against m/class & authority

New Working Class

• Privatism – importance of home & family rather than the wider community
• Weakening of distinct gender roles
• Higher living standards & consumption
• Social aspiration
• Importance of leisure
• Often dual income households

The Underclass

There is real debate over whether the underclass really exists, New Right theorists in particular would argue that it does, while others are less sure.Many statements about the underclass can be seen as value judgements – for example working class young or single mothers are often labelled as being part of the underclass, indicating values about family life.

Values – Saunders (1990), Murray (1990)

• work avoidance
• crime
• avoidance of responsibility

Important Studies, Theorists & Ideas about Class and Identity

Althusser (1971) – class is the most important source of identityBourdieu – importance of cultural capital and habitus

• role of education in maintaining class distinctions
• values placed on education
• teacher assessment of students

Marshall et al (1988) – class still a significant factor in identity

Charlesworth (2000) – study of w/class in Rotherham

• impact of class upon
• ability to express experience
• health
• education
• esteem
• perception of future prospects

Southerton (2002)
• distinct social attitudes
• differing understandings of social class
• attitudes towards each other

How are social class identities changing?

Over past 50 years – changes in UK
• occupational structure
• educational attainment/qualifications
• increased affluence & standards of living
Social Mobility

• movement of people up/down the social hierarchy
• used as an indicator of the open-ness and meritocracy of society
• 2 types of mobility
• Inter-generational mobility – children joining a different social class to their parents
• Has increased over past 50 years
• Changing occupational structure
• Intra-generational mobility – individuals changing which social class they belong to
• Has become more difficult – emphasis on qualifications

The Middle Class and the Working Class
• blurring of divisions
• fragmentation of the social classes – Dahrendorf (1992)
o growth of individualism – community is no longer so important
o shift of power to multinationals – large companies now control society rather than individuals or families
o process of class convergence – the social classes have become more like each other, especially as living standards have risen

Middle Class
• increase in size
• process of proletarianisation – Braverman (1974)
• increase in routine & unskilled non-manual work – “McJobs”
• decline in status
• absorption of sectors of w/class – Goldthorpe (1987)
Working Class – formation of the “New” working class

• decrease in size
• process of embourgeoisement - the working class have become more like the bourgeoisie in terms of values, lifestyle, living standards, culture…
• for more detail on embourgeoisement you can look at the following

Word Document on the background to Embourgeoisement
PowerPoint on Embourgeoisement
• increased wealth, education and changing tastes and values
• increase in living standards – Zweig (1961)
• decrease in unskilled, manual work

A Classless Society?

Debate over whether social class still exists – has it been replaced by a consumption culture? – where status and power are not determined by what you do, but by what you buy and your purchasing powerAgainst: (class still exists)

• Chapman (2001) – continuing existence of distinct upper-class identity
• Closed system of socialisation – education, marriage, social/business networks
• • Adonis and Pollard (1998) – emergence of new “super class”
• Elite professionals and managers
• High salaries and share ownership in businesses
• • MacIntosh and Mooney (2000)
• Social class as prime source of identity
• Comparison against others gives identity

For: (social class no longer matters)

• Sarlvik and Crewe (1983) – voting no longer along class lines
• Traditionally the middle classes voted conservative and the working classes voted Labour, this is no longer always the case
• Conservatives and Labour politicians (including Tony Blair) – Britain is now a meritocracy and a classless society
• Pakulski and Waters (1996) – lifestyles as central source of identity –
• less and less likely to be based on social class
• lifestyle and identity increasingly a matter of choice
• • Postmodernists – consumption is a more important source of identity
• Groups divided by disposable income and how it is spent
• Mode of consumption more important than means of earning income – Clarke and Saunders (1991)
• Slater (1997) – purchase of goods creates meaning in individuals’ lives – expression of identity

Savage et al (2001)

• class still important but identities have weakened
• study of 178 people in Manchester
• did not see Britain as classless
• recognition of political & social importance of class
• identification of life histories in terms of class
• saw themselves as individuals – outside class
• did not want to express own identity in class terms
• but would define others in terms of class